In this research paper, my team and I investigate how AI-generated music — trained increasingly on human-created music without artists’ consent, credit, or compensation — undermines independent musicians and threatens creative democracy. We focus on Spotify, the dominant music streaming platform in the EU and UK, and examine the AI training guidelines outlined by EU and UK legislation. Finally, we propose policy recommendations to establish sufficient regulations. Musicians — and human creative expression more broadly — are currently at risk. Without such guardrails, what’s next?

We are deeply grateful to have presented a prior version of this paper to policy, industry, and academic stakeholders at the University of Oxford’s Rothermere American Institute in June 2025. A huge thank you to Professor David Hoffman, singer-songwriter Tift Merritt, Liz Sparacino, Merritt Cahoon, and Ian Hitchcock at Duke University’s Sanford School of Public Policy — their invaluable support and feedback spurred us forward.