Consumer Response to Artificial Intelligence: The Role of Culture and AI Empathy
Katie McGowan, Supervisor: Aristeidis Theotokis
Introduction
When I first joined the Laidlaw programme, I had no idea how much it would change me. The residentials – Weetwood and Selside – challenged me in entirely different ways. At Weetwood, I learnt what kind of leader I am, not what I thought I should be. Selside was something else entirely – it threw me into situations that tested every physical limit I thought I had. But the real journey began with my research project. I became fascinated by something most people take for granted: how we interact with AI (Artificial Intelligence) chatbots. Over this summer, I have completed a comprehensive review of AI powered service chatbots, and the cultural differences in response to them. I also designed a survey with validated journals and scales.
My research investigated how consumers interact with AI and chatbot, specifically examining the mediating effects of: Agreeableness, Psychological Constructs, Cultural Background, Trust, Warmth, Competence, Empathy, Anthropomorphism, and Continuity Intention (CI). As AI becomes increasingly integrated into daily lives and tasks, understanding the psychological and cultural dimensions of interpreting AI is crucial for developing effective and useful AI systems.
I chose this research area due to AI’s potential to shape global communication and social interaction as we know it, yet the human dimensions of these interactions remain poorly understood. My background in studying psychology allowed me a unique angle, beyond the traditional ‘business’ lens, helping me explore the psychological constructs that later made up my hypotheses. This helped me manipulate the AI conditions, ultimately aiming to enhance consumer experience.
My research aimed to broadly answer the following two questions:
- How do consumers respond differently to agreeable versus non-agreeable AI interactions?
- To what extent does cultural background influence these responses?
I approached these questions through a literature review and development of an experimental survey, with controlled interactions with different AI chatbot scenarios, displaying agreeable, or non-agreeable characteristics. Unfortunately, due to ethical approval constraints, I was unable to fully implement the full experimental design and run it in its entirety. However, this limitation allowed me to fully strengthen my theoretical framework and literature foundations, allowing me to create a validated, and established survey for future use in this research area.
This report discusses my leadership development, research methodology, preliminary findings, challenges I faced, and future directions and impact of my research.
Research Methodology and Overview
My research aimed to explore how consumers respond to chatbots with varying levels of agreeableness, and whether these responses differ cross-culturally. Agreeableness is typically associated with warmth, politeness, and cooperation (Ruane et al., 2021), traits that can make AI interactions feel more natural and trustworthy. My broader goal was to deepen understanding of the psychological mechanisms underpinning human–AI interactions and to inform companies on how to design emotionally intelligent and adaptive chatbots that improve customer satisfaction and retention.
Initially, I intended to conduct a literature review, design and conduct an experimental survey, and analyse the results. However, due to ethical approval constraints, I was unable to complete the full experiment within the project timeline. At first, this felt like a major setback, but on reflection, it allowed me to expand the conceptual scope of my study. By focusing on the literature review and survey design, I moved beyond agreeableness and empathy to explore additional constructs such as anthropomorphism, continuity intention, and competence - all of which are strongly interlinked (Kolomaznik et al., 2024; Lim et al., 2023).
Designing the survey was both challenging and rewarding. I created 20 ecologically valid customer service scenarios, carefully manipulating chatbot tone to represent agreeable and non-agreeable conditions. Writing dialogue that was both realistic and controlled for experimental purposes was extremely difficult, and required multiple revisions after discussions with my supervisor, Aris. I also had to anticipate potential issues such as participant disengagement, which I addressed by including attention checks. Although the survey was not deployed during my timeframe, it will be used in future research by my supervisor, which makes me feel that my work still has lasting value.
Cultural generalisability was a major consideration. Participants will be recruited via Prolific from both individualist (UK/US) and collectivist (China/Japan) cultures. To ensure meaningful engagement, I included screening questions for English proficiency and prior chatbot experience, excluding those who might otherwise struggle with comprehension or lack familiarity with the technology. Reflecting on this, I realised how important it is to design not only for data quality but also for fairness, ensuring participants are able to give genuine, informed responses.
Another challenge was working within my supervisor’s guidance to use only studies from CABS 4 or 4* journals. While this enhanced the credibility of my review, it also narrowed the already limited literature on AI and chatbots. This constraint forced me to be resourceful, drawing on adjacent fields such as consumer psychology and human/computer interaction.
Ultimately, this project taught me resilience, adaptability, and the importance of critical reflection. Even though my original plan shifted, I gained a deeper understanding of how psychological constructs intersect in AI acceptance, and how careful methodological design can help bridge cultural divides. More personally, it showed me that limitations can create opportunities, pushing me to think more creatively about how we study emerging technologies.
Research Impact and Importance
When I began this project, I was struck by how much of the existing literature overlooked the psychological factors underpinning AI acceptance. Many studies, such as Rese et al. (2020), have focused narrowly on satisfaction or communication quality, often neglecting constructs like trust or agreeableness that shape how people actually relate to chatbots. Reflecting on this, I realised how easily research can prioritise what is convenient to measure over what might be more meaningful. It pushed me to think carefully about how I could design a study that addressed these subtler aspects of human–AI interaction.
I was particularly drawn to anthropomorphism, which Kolomaznik et al., (2024) describe as underexplored in AI communication research. At first, I underestimated how challenging it would be to operationalise such human-like behaviours in a measurable way. Yet, as I reviewed studies linking agreeableness to trust and purchase behaviour (Yen & Chiang, 2020; Volkel & Kaya, 2021), I began to see how personality traits offered a practical framework for bridging psychology and consumer outcomes.
Cultural differences added another layer of reflection. Much of the existing work has been limited to collectivist contexts, such as Cheng et al., (2022), leaving questions about how individualist cultures might respond unanswered. For example, Ashfaq et al., (2020) called for greater integration of cultural factors. This gave me a clear sense of purpose: by recruiting from both cultures, my study could contribute something novel. Lim et al. (2023) reinforced this, showing that agreeableness benefits vary between cultures, a finding that made me appreciate the importance of not assuming universality in AI acceptance.
Personally, I also struggled with the methodological constraints of my project. Relying only on validated questions from high-quality journals strengthened reliability, but at times I felt caged in, unable to explore newer or more creative ideas. This helped me understand that innovation in research often comes not from breaking with tradition entirely but from working thoughtfully within its boundaries.
Looking back, this project has been as much about my development as a researcher as it has been about chatbots. It taught me to be critical of research gaps, mindful of cultural assumptions, and aware of the trade-offs between rigour and ground-breaking research. Mostly, it made me reflect on the responsibility of producing work that is not only academically sound but also meaningful for businesses, developers, and consumers navigating an increasingly AI-driven world.
Dissemination Activities
Throughout my Laidlaw research journey, I have been proactive in sharing my work and in promoting the Laidlaw Programme across both academic and professional contexts.
I designed a research poster that communicates my findings on cultural differences in AI acceptance and the mediating role of constructs such as trust and competence. This poster brings together my literature review, theoretical framework, and practical implications for businesses adopting AI in customer service. It will be showcased at the Laidlaw Undergraduate Conference 2026, giving me the chance to present my work, exchange feedback, and engage in conversations with peers and experts in consumer psychology and AI – as it is sure to be even more relevant by then.
I have shared regular updates on LinkedIn and the Laidlaw Scholars Network, highlighting key research insights and my personal experiences as a Laidlaw Scholar. These posts have sparked engagement with fellow students, opening discussions on AI ethics and cross-cultural adoption. This not only helped me refine my ability to communicate complex ideas but also positioned my research within broader real-world debates.
Looking ahead, I am planning to promote the Laidlaw Programme at the upcoming Freshers’ Fair at the University of Leeds. This will provide an opportunity to share personal stories from my research journey and the leadership development training I have gained, encouraging new students to apply for the programme. These conversations will allow me to convey the transformative nature of the scholarship in a way that is more personal and relatable.
Personal Impact
Carrying out research on how people respond to artificial intelligence has been a turning point for me. It hasn’t just taught me about consumer psychology or AI but has reshaped how I see myself as a researcher and what I’m capable of.
One of the main skills I’ve gained is learning how to gather ideas from various areas and make sense of them as a whole. At the start, the sheer amount of literature felt overwhelming, but I learnt how to spot patterns, find the gaps, and link different articles into something meaningful. I also became far more confident at navigating academic databases, managing references, and critically evaluating whether a study was genuinely high quality. These are all skills I know will benefit me throughout my degree and beyond.
The biggest shift was how I now see research itself. At first, I thought all the important questions must have already been asked (and was becoming anxious about making the dissertation relevant and novel). However, as I researched, I realised that the space between cultural psychology and AI empathy was wide open. That realisation was exciting, as it made me see myself as an active contributor rather than just a student summarising other people’s work.
I’ve also grown massively in confidence. Before, I doubted whether I had anything valuable to add. But once I brought together findings from top journals into a framework, I stopped feeling like an imposter and started to believe I belonged in academic discussions. I now see research not as a neat process but as journey that requires resilience but is deeply rewarding.
Overall, this project has shown me that I thrive when merging disciplines. It’s helped me find my voice as a researcher, given me confidence to take on ambitious ideas, and taught me how to navigate the uncertainties of academic work with persistence.
Leadership Development
Being chosen for the Laidlaw Scholarship itself was a huge confidence boost. The application process alone helped me challenge my imposter syndrome, I realised that if I could put myself forward and succeed in such a competitive process, then I could also apply for placements and future roles with greater belief in my abilities. This has already had a direct impact on how I approach my industrial placement applications, giving me both confidence and clarity in how I present myself.
The Weetwood residential allowed me a much deeper understanding of my own leadership style. It was eye-opening to recognise not only my strengths (organisation and empathy) but also the areas I need to develop, like assertiveness in group decision-making. The residential encouraged me to reflect on how different leadership approaches suit different contexts, it gave me the language and framework to think critically about the kind of leader I want to become, and already am. It was a more reflective experience than Selside, but one that helped me see leadership as something dynamic and adaptable rather than fixed.
The Selside residential, by contrast, pushed me far outside my comfort zone - both physically and mentally. Taking place in the Yorkshire Dales, it involved outdoor challenges that demanded calm thinking under pressure and real teamwork. A defining moment was when my group unexpectedly became stuck in a cave due to an instructor’s error. Instead of panicking, we had to work together, stay composed, and problem-solve collectively to get out safely. I also stepped up as a leader when I politely, but firmly, called out the instructor’s mistakes – sending us the wrong way and putting an inexperienced student at the front of the group. Speaking up in this way, for myself and my fellow scholars, was something I would have never fathomed doing before the program. This demonstrated the importance of being respectful, but assertive in difficult situations. Experiences like this showed me how leadership is not just about theory, but about resilience, communication, and supporting others in stressful and unpredictable situations. This taught me the value of keeping calm under pressure and improved my confidence in handling challenging situations.
Managing an independent research project gave me a new appreciation for organisation and resilience. I learnt how to break down big, overwhelming tasks into smaller steps, set realistic deadlines, and keep myself accountable. At first, the breadth of the literature on AI and consumer psychology was daunting, but through structure and persistence, I learnt how to stay on top of the process and not let challenges, such as the ethical approval issues, derail me or my progress.
Another area of leadership growth came through communication. Whether explaining AI empathy on LinkedIn, discussing methods with my supervisor, or sharing insights with peers, I learnt how to adapt my tone depending on the audience. This has made me more confident in my ability to explain complex concepts clearly. This is something I know will be crucial in my future career in HR, where empathy and clarity are essential. Exploring the role of AI in customer interactions has also shown me how technology can be used to improve human experiences, but also how easily it can feel impersonal or alienating if not handled carefully. I often reflected on ethical use of AI during my project, as it can often be misused – technologies like deepfakes and revenge porn demonstrate the need for controls due to potential harmful consequences. As someone who hopes to go into HR, this has made me more conscious of how I can use AI thoughtfully, balancing efficiency with genuine understanding and care for people.
The leadership development I’ve gained through Laidlaw is not just academic, it has shaped how I see myself, how I want to work with others, and how I aspire to lead in my future career. This journey has strengethed my ability and confidence in myself to stand up for what I believe is right, even in situations where I feel like the minority. I have understood that integrity and integration ultimately underpin successful leadership, and a willingness to speak up when it genuinely matters. This revelation has been transformative for my confidence, and I am certain it will continue to shape both my academic and careers, in terms of my convictions and effective leadership.
Future Plans
Looking ahead, I know I want my future career to be in Human Resources. The Laidlaw experience has given me skills and perspectives that will directly help me in that path. For one, it has shown me how AI can be harnessed within HR, not just as a tool for efficiency, but as a way to understand people better and create more supportive, responsive workplaces. For example, the Department for Work & Pensions have incorporated ‘White Mail’ AI technology, to identify high risk pensioners and urgently respond to their concerns – when before it could take up to 50 weeks (Gov UK, 2025). This will be increasingly relevant as businesses adopt AI in recruitment, training, and employee support.
Personally, the process of applying for and completing Laidlaw has already had a big impact on my confidence. Going through such a competitive application process, and then seeing my project come to life, has reassured me that I can handle ambitious challenges. This has carried over into my placement applications, where I now feel far more self-assured in presenting myself and my skills.
Ultimately, I want to be a leader in HR who combines empathy with innovation, using new tools like AI in a way that supports people, not replaces them. Laidlaw has given me both the confidence and the foundation to pursue this path with ambition and purpose.
Conclusion
Reflecting on my Laidlaw journey, I can see just how transformative the experience has been. What started as a curiosity about consumer psychology and artificial intelligence developed into a project that not only deepened my academic skills but also reshaped my confidence, outlook, and career ambitions.
The programme pushed me to step outside my comfort zone, apply for something competitive, and believe that I was capable of succeeding. Simply being chosen for Laidlaw reduced my imposter syndrome and gave me a sense of belonging in the academic and professional world. Along the way, I learnt how to manage a project independently, communicate clearly across different audiences, and see challenges not as setbacks but as opportunities to adapt and grow.
Most importantly, I now see how this research connects to my future career in HR. Laidlaw has helped me recognise the importance of balancing technology with humanity, and how I can use both to become a more empathetic and effective leader.
This journey has left me not only with new skills and knowledge but with the confidence to pursue ambitious opportunities, to lead with understanding, and to keep asking the kinds of questions that can make a genuine impact.
References
Ashfaq, M., Yun, J., Yu, S., & Loureiro, S. M. C. (2020). I, Chatbot: Modeling the determinants of users’ satisfaction and continuance intention of AI-powered service agents. Telematics and Informatics, 54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101473
Cheng, X., Zhang, X., Cohen, J., & Mou, J. (2022). Human vs. AI: Understanding the impact of anthropomorphism on consumer response to chatbots from the perspective of trust and relationship norms. Information Processing & Management, 59(3), 102940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2022.102940
Gov UK. (2025, April 24). Advanced Customer Support: Delivering support and transformation to help DWP customers with additional support needs. GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/delivering-support-and-transformation-to-help-dwp-customers-with-additional-support-needs/advanced-customer-support-delivering-support-and-transformation-to-help-dwp-customers-with-additional-support-needs
Kolomaznik, M., Petrik, V., Slama, M., & Jurik, V. (2024). The role of socio-emotional attributes in enhancing human-AI collaboration. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1369957
Lim, S. L., Bentley, P. J., Peterson, R. S., Hu, X., & McLaren, J. P. (2023). Kill chaos with kindness: Agreeableness improves team performance under uncertainty. Sage Journals, 2(1), 263391372311585-263391372311585. https://doi.org/10.1177/26339137231158584
Rese, A., Ganster, L., & Baier, D. (2020). Chatbots in retailers’ customer communication: How to measure their acceptance? Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 56, 102176. Sciencedirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102176
Ruane, E., Farrell, S., & Ventresque, A. (2021). User Perception of Text-Based Chatbot Personality. Chatbot Research and Design, 32–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68288-0_3
Völkel, S. T., & Kaya, L. (2021). Examining User Preference for Agreeableness in Chatbots. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1145/3469595.3469633
Yen, C., & Chiang, M.-C. (2020). Trust me, If You can: a Study on the Factors That Influence Consumers’ Purchase Intention Triggered by Chatbots Based on Brain Image Evidence and self-reported Assessments. Behaviour & Information Technology, 40(11), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929x.2020.1743362